As text, or see rules and steps
# Xylose degradation in GapMind is based on MetaCyc pathways # I via D-xylulose (metacyc:XYLCAT-PWY), # II via xylitol (metacyc:PWY-5516), # III or V via 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-arabinonate (DKDP) dehydratase (metacyc:PWY-6760, metacyc:PWY-8020), # IV via DKDP aldolase (metacyc:PWY-7294), # as well as another pathway via DKDP dehydrogenase (PMC6336799). # monomeric transporters include xylT-like proteins, and also Gal2, GlcP, but not XYLP_LACPE # TCDB also mentions MA6T (TC 2.A.1.1.10; P15685) but I did not find a reference linking this to xylose uptake # Fitness data identified CCNA_00857 (CC0814; A0A0H3C6H3) as the xylose transporter in Caulobacter crescentus, # consistent with a previous report (PMC2168598). xylT D-xylose transporter curated:SwissProt::O52733 curated:CharProtDB::CH_091400 curated:CharProtDB::CH_091493 curated:CharProtDB::CH_109760 curated:SwissProt::P0AE24 curated:SwissProt::P96710 curated:TCDB::C4B4V9 curated:TCDB::Q0WWW9 curated:TCDB::Q2MDH1 curated:TCDB::Q2MEV7 curated:TCDB::Q64L87 curated:TCDB::Q9XIH7 uniprot:A0A0H3C6H3 gal2 galactose/glucose/xylose uniporter curated:CharProtDB::CH_091029 glcP glucose/mannose/xylose:H+ symporter curated:SwissProt::O07563 # Echvi_1871 (L0FZF3) seems to be a xylose transporter as well as a glucose/galactose transporter. Echvi_1871 sodium/xylose cotransporter uniprot:L0FZF3 # ABC transporters include xylFGH from several organisms (T. maritima has a diverged SBP), # another system from T. maritima (xylE_Tm xylF_Tm XylK_Tm), # and araVUTS from Sulfolobus solfataricus # T. maritima has a diverged SBP, Tmari_1858 (uniprot:G4FGN5). # Tmari_1858 is sometimes annotated as gluE, and is glucose induced. # But the Km for xylose is quite low, so, considered it a xylose transporter as well. # Ignore P54083 (sbpA from A. brasilensis), not known if it transports xylose or not; # close homolog HSERO_RS05190 is mildly important for fitness during growth on xylose, so, it may transport xylose. xylF ABC transporter for xylose, substrate binding component xylF curated:CharProtDB::CH_003787 curated:TCDB::A6LW10 curated:TCDB::P25548 curated:TCDB::G4FGN5 ignore:SwissProt::P54083 xylG ABC transporter for xylose, ATP-binding component xylG curated:SwissProt::P37388 curated:TCDB::A6LW11 curated:TCDB::G4FGN3 curated:TCDB::O05176 xylH ABC transporter for xylose, permease component xylH curated:TCDB::A6LW12 curated:CharProtDB::CH_024441 curated:TCDB::G4FGN4 curated:TCDB::O05177 # The ABC transporter in T. maritima described above is TC 3.A.1.2.20. # TC 3.A.1.2.18 describes another ABC transporter for xylose in T. maritima: # Q9WXW7 = TM0112 = XylF, the permease subunit; # Q9WXW9 = TM0114 = XylE, the SBP, reported high affinity for xylose (PMC1392961); # Q9WXX0 = TM0115 = xylK is the ATPase-binding component. # Also TM0113 is a putative xylanase. # (Only the SBP seems to be characterized but the clustering of these genes with each other # and other xylose-related genes is quite suggestive.) # TC 3.A.1.2.18 also includes Q9WXW0 = TM0105, for which TCDB cites Nanavati et al (PMC1392961), # but that paper does not mention this gene. Probably a curation error. xylF_Tm ABC transporter for xylose, permease component xylF curated:TCDB::Q9WXW7 xylE_Tm ABC transporter for xylose, substrate binding component xylE uniprot:Q9WXW9 xylK_Tm ABC transporter for xylose, ATP binding component xylK uniprot:Q9WXX0 # AraVUTS (TC 3.A.1.1.14) from Sulfolobus solfataricus araV component of Arabinose, fructose, xylose porter curated:TCDB::Q97UF2 araU component of Arabinose, fructose, xylose porter curated:TCDB::Q97UF3 araT component of Arabinose, fructose, xylose porter curated:TCDB::Q97UF4 araS component of Arabinose, fructose, xylose porter curated:TCDB::Q97UF5 # GtsABCD from P. fluorescens WCS417 (PS417_22130:PS417_22145) is very important for utilization # of both glycose and xylose. # Similar systems in other Pseudomonas have been reported as glucose transporters. # In P. putida, after enzymes for xylose catabolism were introduced and the strain was # evolved for growth on xylose, GtsABCD were required for xylose utilization, although there were # two point mutations in GtsA, so it is not certain if the wild-type P. putida GtsA binds xylose # efficiently (see PMC3340264). The P. putida system is marked ignore. # GtsA = PS417_22145 = GFF4324 gtsA xylose ABC transporter, periplasmic substrate-binding component GtsA curated:reanno::WCS417:GFF4324 ignore:TCDB::Q88P38 # GtsB = PS417_22140 = GFF4323 gtsB xylose ABC transporter, permease component 1 GtsB curated:reanno::WCS417:GFF4323 ignore:TCDB::Q88P37 # GtsC = PS417_22135 = GFF4322 gtsC xylose ABC transporter, permease component 2 GtsC curated:reanno::WCS417:GFF4322 ignore:TCDB::Q88P36 # GtsD = PS417_22130 = GFF4321 gtsD xylose ABC transporter, ATPase component GtsD curated:reanno::WCS417:GFF4321 ignore:TCDB::Q88P35 # Transporters were identified using # query: transporter:D-xylose:xylose:CPD-15377 xylose-transport: xylT xylose-transport: gal2 xylose-transport: glcP xylose-transport: Echvi_1871 xylose-transport: xylF xylG xylH xylose-transport: xylF_Tm xylE_Tm xylK_Tm xylose-transport: araV araU araT araS xylose-transport: gtsA gtsB gtsC gtsD # There are also reports of xylose uptake by the mannose PTS system in Lactobacillus # (S. Chaillou et al, J. Bact. 1999) but with poor affinity. xylA xylose isomerase EC:5.3.1.5 # Echvi_1875 (L0FZT0) is annotated as xylulose kinase and has its strongest phentoypes on xylose. # CA_C2612 (Q97FW4) from Clostridium acetobutylicum was proven to be xylulose kinase (PMC2873477). # BT0792 (Q8A9M3) has its strongest phenotypes on xylose. xylB xylulokinase EC:2.7.1.17 uniprot:L0FZT0 uniprot:Q97FW4 uniprot:Q8A9M3 #rpe ribulose-phosphate epimerase EC:5.1.3.1 #rpi ribose-5-phosphate isomerase EC:5.3.1.6 xyrA xylitol reductase EC:1.1.1.307 # L-iditol 2-dehydrogenases (EC:1.1.1.14) often act on xylitol as well, so are ignored. # There's also some xylulose reductases annotated but without an EC number. xdhA xylitol dehydrogenase EC:1.1.1.9 ignore_other:1.1.1.14 ignore_other:xylulose reductase # Watanabe et al 2019 (PMC6336799) show that # C785_RS00860 = WP_034330287.1 = A0A4R8NY47 is D-xylose dehydrogenase (xdh). # Another issue is that xdh from Haloferax volcanii (HVO_B0028; D4GP29) is reported to form xylono-1,4-lactone, # (Sutter et al 2017, PMID:28854683), but this is not reflected in the databases, # and for some (many?) xylose dehydrogenases, # it is uncertain which lactone they form. # So, both forms of D-xylose dehydrogenase are included in "xdh." xdh D-xylose dehydrogenase EC:1.1.1.179 EC:1.1.1.175 uniprot:A0A4R8NY47 # EC:3.1.1.110 is the 1,5-lactonase; EC:3.1.1.68 is the 1,4-lactonase; # both are included in "xylC." # xylono-1,4-lactonase is sometimes given EC:3.1.1.15 (L-arabinino-1,4-lactonase) so ignore those; # indeed HVO_B0030 = metacyc::MONOMER-20630 has both 1,4-lactonase activities (PMID:28854683). xylC xylonolactonase EC:3.1.1.110 EC:3.1.1.68 ignore_other:3.1.1.15 # Watanabe et al (PMC6336799) show that # C785_RS00855 = WP_039783171.1 = UPI0004007277 is D-xylonate dehydratase (xad); # this is 98% identical to D8IWS7_HERSS, so use that identifier. xad D-xylonate dehydratase EC:4.2.1.82 uniprot:D8IWS7_HERSS # Watanabe et al (PMC6336799) show that # C785_RS13680 = WP_039786859.1 = UPI00041852D2 is DKDP dehydratase (kdaD). # Is 98% identical to HSERO_RS19360, which is included via reannotations. kdaD 2-keto-3-deoxy-D-arabinonate dehydratase EC:4.2.1.141 dopDH 2,5-dioxopentanonate dehydrogenase EC:1.2.1.26 # A number of EC:4.1.2.55 enzymes are similar but are promiscuous and are likely # to have this activity as well. This includes uniprot:Q97U28 which is nearly identical to the # promiscuous uniprot:KDGA_SACSO (O54288), but is not annotated with this activity. DKDP-aldolase 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-arabinonate aldolase EC:4.1.2.28 ignore_other:4.1.2.55 # glycolaldehyde oxidoreductase has multiple subunits and no EC number (uniprot:Q97VI4, uniprot:Q97VI7, uniprot:Q97VI6). # This is an inference from close homologs from S. acidocaldarius, which # have demonstrated activity on glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, glyceraldehyde, and acetaldehyde, but not # on glycolaldehyde itself, so there's no proof that these genes provide the activity. # Related enzymes in EC:1.2.99.8 are promiscuous, may well have this activity, so ignore. aldox-large (glycol)aldehyde oxidoreductase, large subunit curated:metacyc::MONOMER-18071 curated:SwissProt::Q4J6M3 ignore_other:1.2.99.8 aldox-med (glycol)aldehyde oxidoreductase, medium subunit curated:metacyc::MONOMER-18072 curated:SwissProt::Q4J6M6 ignore_other:1.2.99.8 aldox-small (glycol)aldehyde oxidoreductase, small subunit curated:metacyc::MONOMER-18073 curated:SwissProt::Q4J6M5 ignore_other:1.2.99.8 # There's also glycolaldehyde dehydrogenase, EC:1.2.1.21 (aldA), with a single subunit aldA (glycol)aldehyde dehydrogenase EC:1.2.1.21 # The NADP based glyoxylate reductase (EC:1.1.1.79) is probably biased in the wrong direction # for glycolate oxidation, so do not include, but ignore homology to it. gyaR glyoxylate reductase EC:1.1.1.26 ignore_other:1.1.1.79 glycolaldehyde-dehydrogenase: aldA glycolaldehyde-dehydrogenase: aldox-large aldox-med aldox-small # Besides the standard enzyme, there's an archaeal enzyme that is sometimes annotated as EC:4.1.3.24, # but that only includes the formation of malyl-CoA, not the cleavage to malate. glcB malate synthase EC:2.3.3.9 ignore_other:4.1.3.24 # C785_RS13675 = WP_039786858.1 = A0A4P7ABK7 is the DKDP 4-dehydrogenase (PMC6336799). DKDP-dehydrog D-2-keto-3-deoxypentoate dehydrogenase uniprot:A0A4P7ABK7 # C785_RS20550 = WP_039788920.1 = A0A2E7P912 is the HDOP hydrolase (PMC6336799). # This enzyme is also similar to SM_b21112, thought to be L-2,4-diketo-3-deoxyrhamnonate hydrolase # and 2,4-dioxopentanoate hydrolase; it is plausible that SM_b21112 acts on HDOP as well. # Similarly for BPHYT_RS34210 (thought to act on 2,4-diketo-3-deoxy-L-fuconate = L-2,4-diketo-3-deoxyrhamnonate). # Both of these homologs are ignored. HDOP-hydrol 5-hydroxy-2,4-dioxopentanonate hydrolase uniprot:A0A2E7P912 ignore:reanno::BFirm:BPHYT_RS34210 ignore:reanno::Smeli:SM_b21112 # In pathway I, isomerase xylA forms D-xylulose and kinase # xylB forms D-xylulose 5-phosphate, an intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway. all: xylose-transport xylA xylB # In pathway II, the reductase xyrA forms xylitol, the dehydrogenase xdhA forms xylitol, # and the kinase xylB forms D-xylulose 5-phosphate. (This pathway is only reported in fungi.) all: xylose-transport xyrA xdhA xylB # In pathway III or V, dehydrogenase xdh forms xylonolactone, lactonase xylC forms D-xylonate, # dehydratase xad forms 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-arabinonate, # dehydratase kdaD forms 2,5-dioxopentanoate (also known as α-ketoglutarate semialdehyde), and # dopDH forms 2-oxoglutarate, an intermediate in the TCA cycle. # (Pathway III has a 1,4-lactone intermediate, while pathway V has a 1,5-lactone intermediate; # GapMind does not distinguish these.) all: xylose-transport xdh xylC xad kdaD dopDH # In pathway IV, xdh and xylC form D-xylonate, dehydratase xad forms 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-arabinonate (DKDP), # and an aldolase forms pyruvate and glycolaldehyde; glycolaldehyde is oxidized to glycolate and to glyoxylate, # and assimilated by malate synthase (glcB). all: xylose-transport xdh xylC xad DKDP-aldolase glycolaldehyde-dehydrogenase gyaR glcB # Alternatively, after DKDP is formed, # a dehydrogenase forms 5-hydroxy,2-4-dioxopentanonate (HDOP), # and a hydrolase forms pyruvate and glycolate (PMC6336799); # the glycolate is oxidized to glyoxylate and converted to malate. all: xylose-transport xdh xylC xad DKDP-dehydrog HDOP-hydrol gyaR glcB
Each pathway is defined by a set of rules based on individual steps or genes. Candidates for each step are identified by using ublast (a fast alternative to protein BLAST) against a database of manually-curated proteins (most of which are experimentally characterized) or by using HMMer with enzyme models (usually from TIGRFam). Ublast hits may be split across two different proteins.
A candidate for a step is "high confidence" if either:
Otherwise, a candidate is "medium confidence" if either:
Other blast hits with at least 50% coverage are "low confidence."
Steps with no high- or medium-confidence candidates may be considered "gaps." For the typical bacterium that can make all 20 amino acids, there are 1-2 gaps in amino acid biosynthesis pathways. For diverse bacteria and archaea that can utilize a carbon source, there is a complete high-confidence catabolic pathway (including a transporter) just 38% of the time, and there is a complete medium-confidence pathway 63% of the time. Gaps may be due to:
GapMind relies on the predicted proteins in the genome and does not search the six-frame translation. In most cases, you can search the six-frame translation by clicking on links to Curated BLAST for each step definition (in the per-step page).
For more information, see the paper from 2019 on GapMind for amino acid biosynthesis, the paper from 2022 on GapMind for carbon sources, or view the source code.
If you notice any errors or omissions in the step descriptions, or any questionable results, please let us know
by Morgan Price, Arkin group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory